The Methods of Psychology

Psychology, as all sciences do, follows strictly some procedures and methods to carry out its investigation. Under the two heads of Naturalistic and Controlled Observation there are a number of methods employed in Psychology Introspection, Developmental. Field Study are the methods of Naturalistic Observation whereas Experimental, Case History or Clinical, Survey, Biographical and Statistical are those of controlled observation.

Developmental Method:

This method is also called the Genetic Method. The method undertakes to trace back the whole development of the individual starting from the present given stage and going back far into the primitive past. In this method the psychologist attempts to obtain a complete record of gradual development of a phenomenon or the individual in view. In this the psychologist succeeds in reaching the simple beginning of a phenomenon going through complicated developmental stages from present to the past.

By following this method highly modified and developed forms of behaviour of human adults are traced back to the simple level of children and animals. That simple level is that of primitive, primary motives which is easily understood to find the origin of behaviour or the problem phenomenon. For this purpose the researcher lives with the primitive people for some time.

Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882), the renowned biologist diverted attention to the study of child development. lookup studying his own child for quite a long time in to find out as how emotions develop in child psychology as a highly reliable procedure of research. The scheme of study in child development underwent an utter change with Darwin’s approach. Now the method is employed in both ways i.e. in the case of given individual with some particular phenomenon it traces back the origin and in child development study it provides a day-to-day record.

This record is an authentic material for all practical purposes which enlightens on all stages of age, physic al maturation and learning. We can easily mark the changes in the child’s behaviour stage by stage. The Day - book Method is also used in child study which provides a full record of changes in the behaviour and development.

The Field Study Method:

Every discipline of science employs this time old research technique which is a form of naturalistic observation. This often used in the situations where experimentation is impossible. The field-study can be described as making direct observation of nature. The investigator, in this method, has to simply go into the relevant field with one or more definite questions and record observations. He is not required to hold the conditions constant or control in any way. He may not even try to have all of those conditions under which his subjects are operating.

The observer generally does not need the direct cooperation of the subjects. It is rather more useful that the subjects are not conscious or aware of being observed. Such studies rottenly prove more successful. In some other instances the investigator may seek cooperation of the concerned people without telling ‘hem the real purpose of the study. He finds it helpful to join the daily life of his subjects for some time in order to have a better, clearer understanding of their ways of living.

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The Measurement of Personality

There is a large variety of tests for measurement of personality. Almost every theorist has also developed a measurement technique of his own along with his personality theory. Usually the type of personality test chosen in any particular situation reflects the test-giver’s own theory. Moreover, it indicates the purpose for which the test is being given and much about the testing situation.

Most widely used personality tests are of two types: Objective and Projective test.

1. The Objective Tests:

Usually answered in writing rather than conversation, objective tests call for short replies. They are consisting of a standardized list of questions. The possible short answers are generally of true-false, yes-no, cannot say, completion item or multiple-choice types. The answer never exceeds a word or two, where it is to be so answered. You just tick T (True) or F (False) or your response in all cases except completion item. Here your answer will be of one word or maximum two. While interpretation, being less subjective than for projective tests, does not call for the same level of skill and training from the examiner, it. is still not cut-and- dried. In scientific and practical terms, these tests do come out to be better on validity and ‘reliability than do the projective techniques.

‘Among those widely used in personality testing are the following

1. MMPI: The Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory. J.C. McKinley and Starke R. Hathaway (1951) from Minnesota Medical School found a way to bring some kind of standardization to psychiatric diagnosis. They collected more than 1000 potential questionnaire items, which then they posed to both mental patients and apparently healthy people. Starting during late 1930’s with 566 items, they then kept 550 items that clearly differentiated between the patients and the non-patients.

This test has generated so much research that by 1976, some 3500 references on the MMPI were in literature (Anastasia) in the States only. While the inventory is still used to look for evidence of emotional disturbance, it is also widely used as a general measure of personality traits. The answers are characterized in two ways -- on four scales that check the overall validity of the test taker’s answers and on ten clinical scales that demonstrate specific traits. Se Tables 76 as a specimen.

In spite of all its popularity and wide usage MMPI is not without critics. The original standardization sample was too small to begin with and the test-retest validity hovers around zero (Samuel 1981). A major problem is that the test is often used outside the clinical setting for which it was originally developed. This inventory had been also standardized completely.

2. The 16 PF: Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire: Raymond Cattell (1965, 1973) came up with a basic list of sixteen source traits using factor analysis, a statistical procedure. Factor analysis provides a way to group highly correlated items to gesture. A group of such items is then called a factor. According to Cattell three of his basic sixteen factors are the most important in describing personality. They describe how outgoing or reserved a person is, how stable or emotional and how intelligent. Critics have charged that Cattell was arbitrary in extracting and naming his source factors and that the scales are not valid predictors of behaviour. Cattell is, however, refining constantly the techniques and the test is well esteemed in some quarters (Samuel 1981).

3. CPI: The California Psychological Inventory

As similar in concept to the MMPI, the CPI (California Psychological Inventory) was developed to measure normal’ or ‘non-deviant’ personality traits specially (Cough, 1969). In addition to three validity scales tapping test-taking attitude, there are 15 subscales which provide scores in such areas as dominance, self-acceptance, and responsibility, and self control, achievement via conformance, achievement-via-Independence, and feminist. Similar MMP,-the subscales were developed using criterion groups. The CPI criterion groups were made up of people who were judged by their peers to be strong on one of the traits measured by tests. By an expert interpreter, the test does quite good job of predicting how people will act in important situations and how they will be viewed by others.

4. JPPS: The Edwards Personal Preferences Schedule

This scale like CPI measurements normal response tendencies. It is designed to characterize people on the dominant motives or needs, found in Murray’s list of basic needs achievement, defense, order, exhibition, autonomy, and so on. While constructing this test, Edwards (1954) wanted to avoid a bias found in many personality inventories subject’s tendencies to give responses that show them in a socially desirable light. As a consequence, the Edward Personal Preferences Schedule asks people to choose one item in each of a series of 225 pairs that research has shown to he on the average equally desirable. Although it has not been validated so rigorously, as psychologists would like, the EPPS, has proved useful in counseling situations.

This personality schedule has been used in testing in Pakistan since early sixties. The field of life where it has been popularly in vogue has been selection in civil arid military important positions and for academic purposes. This test was also locally standardized in Urdu language quite long before.

5. ACI: The Adjective Check List.

It is very simple, versatile objective test, called the ACL (Gough, 1960) consisting of 300 adjectives. These adjectives are arranged in alphabetical order and are often used by the people m description of personalities. A person who has to rate some one goes through the whole list checking any adjectives which appear applicable to the person being described. One can also utilize the ACL for describing own self and make thus an estimate about oneself.

John S Lam is an IT Instructor at Examskey. He is 220-802 Certified Professional. Take the benefit of our 200-120 material and assure your success. Check out our free demo of all certifications Exams.

The Nervous System

All what we act, behave; feel or respond has an explanation in terms of mechanism within the body of the organism as well. What does trigger the overtly visible piece of behaviour from within? How do brain and muscles interact and collaborate in different shapes of behaviour? What is the neural basis of human or organisms’ behaviour? What is, to be brief, the relationship between biology and behaviour? The study of the nervous system will be an effort to seek answers to such questions. To understand human behaviour, then we need to understand the basic structures and processes that furnish information to us about the world around and e1bIe us to react to it as well.

We will also try to explore the intricate workings of the brain and the nervous system to find how they affect mental and physical processes we can emit. As brain research continues with ever more sophisticated instruments for studying the nervous system it is also very helpful for treating the mental disorders.

The study of nervous system will enable us to understand a number of physical and mental processes especially with reference to emotional behaviour, sensation and perception and states of consciousness We can see how our abilities to sense, to perceive and to act depend on our state of consciousness. We experience the world differently and behave differently depending on whether w are awake and alert, asleep or in an alternate state, induced by meditation, drugs or hypnosis?

 What is Nervous System?

The nervous system consists of two major types of nerves namely, the afferent or sensory nerves and the efferent or motor nerves. The nerves running up from sense - organs or certain parts of the body to the brain carrying sensations and information are ca1ld afferent or sensory nerves. Those which run down from the brain to the muscles, glands or other parts of the body and carry to them the orders of the brain are called efferent or motor nerves. These nerves are spread all over the human body and function under two main divisions of the nervous system i.e. the Central Nervous. System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

 
The Central Nervous System (CNS): It consists of the Spinal Cord and the Brain.

 
The Spinal Cord is about 16 to 18 inches long bunch of nerves located in the hollow spaces between vertebrae. The vertebrae are the small-sized bones tied up together like a chain that make up the backbone. The nerves from the limbs and trunk run to the spinal cord and the spinal cord runs direct to brain. The spinal cord is the continuation of the medulla oblongata and runs through the vertebrae column or backbone. It is a rope of nerves as thick as the little finger. The nerves shooting off from the Spinal Cord are called spinal nerves, each nerve having two roots, one in the frontal part of the Spinal Cord and the other in the hind part.

The Brain: The human brain is a spongy organ that weighs only about 3 pounds in an adult (ranging from 44 ounces to 49) in male or female. It comprises, brain stem, makeup of the pons, the medulla oblongata and the midbrain or the Cerebellum (the ‘little brain) and the Cerebrum, or the forebrain which is made up of the Thalamus, the Hypothalamus, the Limbic system and the Cerebral Cortex.

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Hiring Columbus Janitor to Keep Your Office Clean and Healthy

Who doesn’t like working in a clean office? Business owners shouldn’t overlook the importance of a clean and organized office as it may make everyone who occupies the workplace healthier, more productive and happier. When searching for the right Columbus janitor to maintain and clean your office located in Columbus Ohio area, you should consider a commercial cleaning company that offers eco friendly cleaning techniques and uses only effective and non toxic products.

 

Office cleaning can become very tedious jobs, so it’s much suggested for employers to employ the professionals to do all kinds of office cleaning tasks. Reputable and wide experienced Columbus janitor will assure your entire business space including workplaces, bathrooms and lobby areas are kept hygienic, dirt free and uncluttered all the time. Cleaning experts like people at JAN-PRO^® will apply the latest technologies and instruments to provide you with the best cleaning solution. 

A clean business space is important as it may convey the professional image and make a good impression on your potential clients. There won’t be any business partner who likes to deal with you if your office always looks chaotic and unclean. A neat office will definitely represent a productive and well-arranged business. Therefore creating a workplace that can reflect who you are as a business owner and your company’s objectives is a crucial step in improving your business. A reliable commercial cleaning company may support you to develop such an office that you want!

Inspiration for a Healthier Life

Many people fail to understand the importance of being healthy and in fact how useful and how much better life is with a healthy body and a healthier lifestyle. The problem is that the people who live in the wrong unhealthy manner believe that there are tons of unpleasant responsibilities in the world of the person who is living in a healthy way. Yes, there are responsibilities but they would be unpleasant only for the person who doesn’t care for himself and who prefers to continue living with a ruined body when he has every chance to continue to live in a better way that will take nothing from him except time, and this time will be well spent.

There are number of motivations however that might inspire you to change your lifestyle in a healthier, better direction. For instance, consider the possibility of not being able to get sick or to have no health problems throughout the whole year or let us say for years ahead. This is what a healthy body guarantees. Furthermore, you will be feeling happier, better in a healthy body. The two things- stress and unhealthy body and happiness and health are fully connected.

Naturally, if your body is in proper condition your emotions will be in the very same condition as well. Finally a healthy lifestyle means a healthy body in a healthy home and that means that you will get on with the people you know better, consider all the connections and relations you could make through your new appearance. A healthy lifestyle basically gives it all to you in one way or another-all you need to do is to make the effort for yourself.

First of all a healthy body would mean most of all the way in which you won’t get sick and you won’t ever have to visit a doctor or a dentist of any sort ever. Imagine a life in which you shouldn’t care about getting sick at all. Very few can be proud with this but regardless the fewer health problems you have the better your life and days will be from start to finish.

A healthy body always works in a positive direction which means that if you have allergies it is very possible that they disappear after a while if you manage to keep your healthy condition for long enough. Furthermore, a healthy body means that you will feel good and that means you will be constantly in a better mood and from there you can feel free to forget about stress, constant depression and lack of sleep or the torture of insomnia. And finally of course it is your good looks that you need to aspire to and all the new connections to people that will follow from there.

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